What are the best tips for shooting a shotgun?

Stance is crucial for shotgun control. A slight forward weight distribution, achieved by positioning your right foot (for right-handed shooters) marginally ahead of your left, promotes stability and facilitates a smooth gun mount. This forward weight shift allows for a more natural and controlled recoil management. Think of it as preparing your body to absorb the recoil before it even happens. Avoid a rigid stance; maintain a fluid posture that allows for minor adjustments during the shooting process.

This subtle shift in weight isn’t just about balance; it directly impacts your gun mount. By pre-positioning your weight, you reduce the need for significant corrections during the mount, leading to faster target acquisition and improved accuracy. A smooth, controlled mount is paramount for consistent performance. Avoid jerky movements.

Many high-level shotgunners utilize variations of this stance, subtly adjusting foot placement based on the specific shooting scenario and the type of shotgun used. Experimentation is key to finding what works best for your body type and shooting style. Video analysis of your shooting form can reveal subtle inefficiencies that adjustments to your stance can resolve.

Finally, remember that proper stance is only one piece of the puzzle. It needs to be integrated with correct grip, sight picture, and breathing techniques for optimal performance. Neglecting any of these fundamental aspects will negate the benefits of a well-executed stance.

Why do police use shotguns instead of rifles?

The shotgun’s effectiveness at close range stems from its unique projectile delivery system. Unlike rifles, which rely on precise projectile placement, the shotgun’s spread pattern significantly increases the probability of hitting a target within its effective range. This “area denial” capability is crucial in close-quarters engagements where target acquisition time is minimal and precise aim is difficult. The cited 45% increase in hit probability over submachine guns and 200% increase over assault rifles at short range reflects this advantage; however, this varies significantly based on shot type, choke constriction, and target size. Studies have demonstrated that buckshot, a common shotgun round, delivers a greater number of projectiles and a wider spread than a rifle round, dramatically increasing the likelihood of incapacitation, even with less precise aim. While rifles offer superior range and accuracy, their effectiveness diminishes drastically at short range, making the shotgun the weapon of choice for police in situations demanding immediate incapacitation of a threat at close proximity. The trade-off is accuracy at longer ranges; shotguns are significantly less effective beyond 25-50 yards (depending on ammunition and choke), highlighting their role as a specialized close-quarters combat tool.

What is the best pattern for a shotgun?

Shotgun pattern evaluation is crucial for optimal performance. We assess patterns within a 30-inch circle because that generally represents the maximum effective range of a typical shot pattern. Think of it as your “kill zone.”

Understanding Pattern Density: You’ll notice a key difference in pellet distribution.

Pattern Core (15-20 inch diameter): This central area boasts the highest pellet concentration. This is where you want the majority of your shot to land for consistent kills.
Pattern Fringe (Outer 20-30 inch ring): Pellet density significantly decreases in this outer ring. While still capable of delivering a hit, it’s less reliable for consistent stopping power. This is where you’ll start to see significant pellet drop-off.

Factors Influencing Pattern Density: Several variables influence your pattern, including:

Choke: Different chokes (cylinder, improved cylinder, modified, full) dramatically affect pattern density and spread. Full chokes deliver tighter patterns, ideal for longer ranges, while cylinder chokes produce wider, less dense patterns for closer shots.
Ammunition: Shot size, type, and even the manufacturer influence pellet distribution. Experimentation is key to finding the best ammo for your shotgun and choke combination.
Gun Fit: Proper gun fit is paramount. A poorly fitting shotgun can drastically affect your pattern, leading to inconsistent results.

Practical Application: By understanding pattern density and the factors influencing it, you can optimize your shooting for various hunting situations and distances. Remember to consistently pattern your shotgun with different loads and chokes to determine the optimal setup for your needs.

Are shotguns difficult to use?

The assertion that pump-action shotguns are the simplest for home defense is a common, yet misleading, simplification. While mechanically less complex than some firearms, their effectiveness hinges heavily on user proficiency, a factor often overlooked. The “simple” nature of the pump-action mechanism masks a significant skill curve.

Challenges for Inexperienced Users:

Recoil Management: Shotguns, especially those with heavier gauges, possess substantial recoil. Inexperienced users often struggle to control the weapon after firing, leading to inaccurate follow-up shots – a critical factor in a home defense scenario.
Pumping Technique: The smooth, controlled operation of the pump is crucial for reliable feeding and ejection. Improper pumping can lead to malfunctions like stovepipes or failure to feed, effectively disabling the weapon during a critical moment. This is particularly crucial under stress.
Sight Alignment and Target Acquisition: The wide spread of shotgun pellets requires less precise aiming than rifles, but this shouldn’t be mistaken for requiring no aim at all. Rapid target acquisition and appropriate lead are essential, skills that demand practice and training.
Ammunition Selection: Understanding different shotgun shell types (buckshot, birdshot, slugs) and their ballistic properties is vital for effective home defense. Improper ammunition selection can drastically reduce effectiveness or increase the risk of overpenetration, causing collateral damage.

Advanced Considerations for Competitive Application:

Rapid Deployment and Manipulation: In competitive shooting, the speed and efficiency of reloading and manipulating the pump-action mechanism are paramount. High-level competitors have honed these skills to near-reflexive levels through rigorous training.
Strategic Shell Selection: Competitive shooters often employ specialized ammunition and techniques not relevant to home defense, optimizing for range, target engagement, and specific challenges in the competition.
Weapon Maintenance and Reliability: Maintaining the shotgun’s mechanical reliability under high-stress conditions is crucial. This is an area where meticulous attention to detail and experience become decisive.

Conclusion (implicit): While the pump-action shotgun’s simplicity is frequently touted, mastering it requires significant training and practice to overcome inherent challenges and achieve effective utilization, a notion frequently missed by casual observers.

What are the four fundamentals of shotgun shooting?

Forget what you think you know about shotgunning; it’s not just about pulling the trigger. Think of it like a high-level video game: mastering the fundamentals is your “easy mode” to victory. We’re talking about consistent, repeatable, high-percentage shots, every time.

Stance: It’s not just about standing; it’s about *athleticism*. Find a balanced, slightly athletic stance, feet shoulder-width apart, weight distributed evenly. Imagine you’re ready to react instantly – this is your “ready position,” your “load screen” before the target appears. A slight bend in the knees is key for stability and absorbing recoil, like a skilled MMO raider anticipating a boss attack.

Mount: The “shouldering” isn’t a jerky motion; it’s a fluid, controlled movement. Picture smoothly merging your gun into your body as if you’re connecting to a special ability. Your cheek should naturally rest on the stock, ensuring consistent sight alignment – that’s your lock-on. Practice until this is instinctual.

Sight Picture: This is where many falter. “Pointing” isn’t enough. It’s about *instinctive pointing*, where you use your peripheral vision to track the target while focusing on the barrel. Think of it like a FPS pro’s muscle memory – the barrel becomes an extension of your arm, a natural aiming system. Don’t overthink it.

Trigger Control: Forget “pulling the trigger quickly.” It’s about a *smooth, controlled press*. Jerking it throws off your swing, like missing a crucial button press in a fighting game. The trigger press should be the final act, a clean, consistent finish to a perfectly executed movement. Maintain that swing – it’s your combo.

What is the purpose of a mid bead on a shotgun?

The mid-bead on a shotgun, while seemingly minor, plays a significant role in point-of-impact management, particularly at closer ranges. Its primary function is to provide a secondary aiming reference point, enhancing accuracy, especially in scenarios requiring quick target acquisition like hunting moving game, such as turkeys or waterfowl. The shooter uses the mid-bead in conjunction with the front bead to establish a sight picture, effectively extending the aiming plane. This is crucial for compensating lead and anticipating the bird’s trajectory.

However, the optimal configuration is highly individualized. Some competitive shooters, particularly those focusing on longer-range targets, prefer minimal distractions and may opt for smaller, less obtrusive beads or even remove the mid-bead entirely. This allows for a cleaner sight picture, focusing primarily on the front bead and the target, enhancing their ability to track the bird seamlessly. The removal, however, requires careful consideration and potentially adjustments to their shooting technique. The choice ultimately depends on individual shooting style, preferred range, and the type of game being hunted.

Key considerations when using or removing the mid-bead:

Shot Pattern: The mid-bead’s presence or absence can subtly affect perceived point-of-impact. Removal may necessitate adjustments to compensate for potential shifts in the shot pattern.

Shooting Style: A more instinctive shooter might find the mid-bead cumbersome, preferring a simpler, more intuitive aiming system. Conversely, a shooter emphasizing precision might rely heavily on its aid for consistent lead.

Target Distance: The mid-bead is more beneficial at closer ranges, losing relevance as distance increases. At longer ranges, the front bead and instinctive aiming become more critical.

What is a shotgun flick?

A shotgun flick is a rapid, almost instinctive aiming technique, primarily used in close-quarters combat scenarios. It’s less about precise aiming and more about quickly getting your shotgun’s crosshairs onto a target – target acquisition – and reacting to its movement. Think of it as a rapid, reactive adjustment rather than a deliberate, slow aim. The speed is crucial; the goal is to fire before the enemy reacts or moves out of range. The term “flick” perfectly encapsulates the speed and decisiveness of the motion.

This technique is exceptionally useful when dealing with multiple targets (target switching). The speed of the flick allows you to rapidly shift your aim between enemies, maximizing your damage output before they can overwhelm you. Mastering the shotgun flick often involves understanding your weapon’s spread pattern and recoil characteristics. Predicting enemy movement is also key; anticipate where the enemy will be, rather than aiming precisely where they are.

While effective, it’s important to note that the shotgun flick relies heavily on the weapon’s short-range effectiveness and the spread of pellets. Accuracy beyond a certain distance drastically reduces, making it less effective at longer ranges. Therefore, skillful shotgun players often combine the flick with strategic positioning and awareness to maximize their advantage.

Practice is paramount. Mastering the shotgun flick demands extensive time spent in training modes or casual play, developing muscle memory and instinctive reactions. Understanding your weapon’s recoil and adjusting your aim accordingly – even during the flick itself – is crucial for consistency and effectiveness.

How do I get better at shotgun aim?

Consistent, efficient practice is paramount. Forget mindless spraying; focus on controlled bursts and precise shot placement. Prioritize fundamentals: grip, stance, and breathing control significantly impact accuracy.

Target Acquisition:

Develop your ability to quickly identify and acquire targets. Practice switching between targets rapidly without losing your sight picture.
Utilize pre-aiming techniques to anticipate enemy movement and minimize reaction time.

Pattern Recognition:

Understand your shotgun’s spread pattern intimately. This knowledge allows for more accurate shot placement at varying ranges.
Experiment with different choke types to see how it affects your spread and range.

Map Awareness:

The absence of aim assist highlights the importance of map knowledge and positioning. Using cover effectively and understanding enemy spawn points dramatically increases your chances of winning engagements.

Advanced Techniques:

Strafe Shooting: While firing, move laterally to maintain a smaller target profile and disrupt your opponent’s aim.
Jump Shots: Use this technique to throw off enemy aim and create unexpected shooting angles, especially useful in close quarters.
Recoil Control: Even with shotguns, understanding and mitigating recoil is essential for follow-up shots. Practice controlling the weapon’s upward movement.

Practice Strategies:

Aim trainers: Utilize aim trainers to refine your aim and reaction time. Focus on drills that mimic in-game scenarios.
Custom Games: Set up custom games to practice specific scenarios, focusing on your weak areas. Analyze your gameplay after each session to identify areas for improvement.

The absence of aim assist simulates realistic scenarios, forcing adaptation to raw skill and precise aiming techniques. This is invaluable for improving long-term consistency.

Is a 12 gauge too much for home-defense?

The 12-gauge, and even the 10-gauge, delivers devastating stopping power. A single well-placed shot from either has a significantly higher probability of incapacitating a threat compared to handguns or rifles, which often necessitate multiple hits. This superior one-shot stopping power stems from the massive kinetic energy transferred by the larger shot payload and the significant recoil. The substantial spread of the shot pattern at typical home-defense ranges also increases the effective target area, compensating for less-than-perfect aim under stress.

The argument against the 12-gauge for home defense often centers on overpenetration – a valid concern. However, the use of reduced-recoil ammunition, such as low-recoil buckshot or birdshot, mitigates this risk considerably. These rounds maintain effective stopping power while significantly reducing the likelihood of rounds passing through walls and endangering neighbors. Remember to always consider your surroundings and the potential for collateral damage when selecting ammunition.

Furthermore, the tactical advantage of a pump-action or semi-automatic shotgun shouldn’t be overlooked. The relatively quick and reliable action of these firearms ensures you can swiftly address multiple threats, although a single well-placed shot is usually all that’s needed. Proper training and practice with your chosen firearm and ammunition are paramount to ensure you can effectively handle it in a high-stress environment. This familiarity will vastly improve your accuracy and reaction time, maximizing the benefits of the shotgun’s inherent stopping power.

Ultimately, while the power of a 12-gauge might seem excessive to some, its capacity to instantly neutralize a threat with a single shot, coupled with readily available less-lethal options, makes it a highly effective, albeit powerful, choice for home defense. However, responsible ownership and rigorous training are absolutely non-negotiable.

What is the best stance for a shotgun?

The “best” shotgun stance is a myth; optimal stance is highly individual and depends on factors like body type, shooting style, and the specific shotgun. However, a common starting point for right-handed shooters is a slightly forward left foot, angled approximately 45 degrees towards the target. This isn’t a rigid rule; the angle should facilitate a natural, balanced posture. Avoid forcing a specific angle; prioritize comfort and stability.

The key is a balanced, athletic stance promoting both stability and maneuverability. Your weight should be distributed evenly, allowing for quick shifts in weight and aiming adjustments. Think less about rigidly positioning your feet and more about achieving a stable base of support. Experiment with subtle foot placement variations – perhaps a slightly wider or narrower stance – to find what feels most comfortable and allows for controlled recoil management.

Many beginners overemphasize foot position at the expense of overall body alignment. While foot placement is a component of proper stance, it’s secondary to good posture. Maintain a straight back, slightly bent knees, and a relaxed but alert posture. This allows for a more natural aiming process and reduces muscle strain during prolonged shooting. Proper breathing techniques are crucial here as well; controlled breathing directly affects aim stability.

Finally, practice is paramount. Experiment with different stances on the range (with proper safety precautions, of course) to find what works best for *you*. Record yourself shooting from different stances to identify subtle postural issues you may not be consciously aware of. Refining your stance is an ongoing process, not a one-time fix.

What are the cons of a shotgun?

Alright folks, let’s talk shotguns. We’ve all seen them in action, but let’s break down the downsides, shall we? Think of this as a “Let’s Play” of real-world weaponry, and believe me, I’ve seen a lot of virtual and real-world guns.

Recoil: First off, that kickback. Holy moly, shotguns pack a serious punch. We’re talking significantly more recoil than your average AR or AK platform carbine. Managing that recoil consistently, especially under pressure, is a skill that takes dedicated practice. Think of it like mastering a really tricky boss fight – you need the right technique and training to succeed.

Size and Handling: Shotguns are generally bulkier than other defensive options. They’re not exactly discreet; you’re not slipping one of these babies into your pocket. This impacts maneuverability, especially in tight quarters. Imagine trying to navigate a cramped level in a game; a shotgun’s size becomes a real disadvantage.

Barrel Length Limitations: Now, unless you’re dealing with NFA items (and let me tell you, that’s a whole other rabbit hole of regulations), you’re looking at a maximum barrel length of 18.5 inches for shotguns. Compare that to rifles, which can go down to 16 inches. This affects handling and velocity; shorter barrels mean less range and more muzzle flash. It’s like having a nerfed weapon in a game – less effective at longer ranges.

Ammunition Considerations: While the stopping power of a shotgun is undeniable, remember that ammo choice matters greatly. Buckshot patterns are affected by distance. Think of it like aiming a rocket launcher – accuracy drops drastically at longer ranges. Slug rounds offer greater range but less spread, requiring more precise aim. You’ve got to choose the right ammo for the situation, just like picking the right weapon for each enemy type in a game. This adds a layer of complexity that other firearms don’t always have.

Cost: Shotgun ammo can be more expensive than some rifle calibers, especially specialized types. Factor that into your overall strategy.
Maintenance: Cleaning a shotgun can be more involved than cleaning some other weapons, depending on the model and type of ammo used.

Why is a shotgun not the best home-defense weapon?

The shotgun, while popular in the home defense narrative, presents several significant drawbacks when analyzed through a tactical lens. Its inherent limitations often outweigh perceived advantages.

Size and Weight: The shotgun’s bulk is a critical disadvantage. Its larger size hinders quick deployment in tight spaces, a common characteristic of home defense scenarios. The added weight contributes to fatigue, impacting accuracy and reaction time under stress. This is especially relevant for less physically robust users. Handguns, by comparison, offer superior maneuverability and concealability.

Learning Curve and Proficiency: Achieving consistent accuracy with a shotgun requires substantial training and practice. The spread pattern of shot, while offering a larger target area, also significantly increases the chance of over-penetration and collateral damage, particularly in residential environments. A handgun, with proper training, offers a more manageable learning curve and better control over shot placement.

Recoil Management: The significant recoil of shotguns, especially those with high-gauge shells, can be overwhelming for many users. This forceful recoil impacts follow-up shots, a critical factor during a home invasion. The delay in recovering from recoil can make the difference between neutralizing a threat and becoming a victim. Handguns generally offer significantly less recoil, facilitating faster follow-up shots.

Storage and Accessibility: The combination of safe storage and rapid accessibility presents a major challenge with shotguns. Securing a long gun requires more robust storage solutions compared to a handgun, potentially adding crucial seconds to response time in a critical situation. The trade-off between security and speed of access requires careful consideration.

Overpenetration Risk: The use of shot, while effective at close range, poses a serious risk of overpenetration, potentially harming innocent bystanders or neighbors.
Ammunition Considerations: Shotgun ammunition variety is a factor. The choice of shot type and size needs careful evaluation based on the specific home defense environment to balance stopping power and overpenetration risks.
Maintenance: Shotguns can require more maintenance compared to handguns, including cleaning and lubrication after use, affecting readiness.
Tactical Considerations: In a dynamic home defense scenario, the shotgun’s limitations regarding maneuverability, follow-up shots, and overpenetration frequently negate the perceived benefit of its stopping power.
User Proficiency: A highly trained individual can mitigate some of these drawbacks, but this necessitates significant investment in training, which is often lacking.

What are the 5 gun rules?

The widely circulated “five gun rules” are actually closer to six fundamental principles, crucial for minimizing risk in firearms handling. Let’s analyze them from a risk-mitigation perspective, drawing parallels to established safety protocols in other high-risk fields.

1. Treat all guns as if they are loaded: This isn’t just a rule; it’s a foundational assumption. Similar to assuming a system failure in aviation or nuclear power, this preemptive mindset prevents complacency, the leading cause of firearm accidents. The cognitive load is minimal, but the safety benefit is paramount.

2. Keep the gun pointed in the safest possible direction: This emphasizes muzzle awareness—constant, conscious control of the firearm’s direction. Think of it like a surgeon’s precision: deliberate and unwavering focus on the target area, eliminating the possibility of collateral damage. The safest direction is invariably downrange, at a backstop, never pointed at anything you do not intend to destroy.

3. Keep your finger off the trigger until you are ready to shoot: This is the “trigger discipline” element, directly analogous to sterile technique in surgery. Maintaining a conscious, controlled distance between finger and trigger until the exact moment of intended discharge prevents accidental discharges from unintentional movement.

4. Know your target, its surroundings, and beyond: This is risk assessment amplified. It’s not just identifying the target; it’s understanding the full ballistic trajectory, accounting for ricochets, overpenetration, and potential unintended consequences. This is crucial for minimizing unintended harm, mirroring pre-flight checklists in aviation that ensure complete system functionality.

5. Know how to properly operate your gun: This encompasses proficiency. Just like a pilot needs thorough flight training, safe firearm handling demands comprehensive understanding of the weapon’s mechanics, function, and limitations. Regular maintenance, practice, and proficiency drills are essential to mitigate risk. Malfunctions are less likely when the user is properly trained.

6. (Implicit Rule) Store firearms securely: While often omitted in the concise five-rule summary, secure storage is paramount. This prevents unauthorized access, a significant risk factor in accidental shootings. Proper storage should involve a combination of physical security measures and user education. This is similar to how banks safeguard assets.

Should I take the bead off my shotgun?

Removing your bead depends entirely on your shooting style and target acquisition preferences. Many experienced shooters find that a bead can hinder their ability to focus on the target, especially at longer ranges. The bead can become a secondary focus, slowing down your reaction time and affecting accuracy. This is particularly true when transitioning between targets quickly, or when dealing with moving targets.

Let’s consider a practical example: Shooting a low-grass target, as you suggested, is a great way to evaluate your beadless shooting. This provides a consistent, relatively unexciting target allowing you to focus solely on your sight picture. This removes the distraction of the bead and forces you to rely on your fundamental shooting skills: stance, grip, and follow-through. The lack of visual clutter helps you hone your natural point of aim.

However, a bead *can* be beneficial for certain situations. Beginners often find that the bead provides a consistent point of reference, aiding in target acquisition. It can be particularly useful for close-range shooting, improving speed and accuracy at short distances. Ultimately, the decision is personal. Experiment with both to discover what works best for *your* shooting style and comfort level. Spend time practicing with and without the bead to determine which approach yields more consistent results.

The “pull” you mentioned is crucial. This refers to your trigger control. With or without a bead, a smooth, controlled trigger pull is paramount for accuracy. Your focus should always remain on the target, and your trigger pull should be the last component of your shooting process. Practice this thoroughly, regardless of your bead preference.

What is a ghost ring on a shotgun?

Ghost ring sights on a shotgun are a game-changer for speed and accuracy, especially in fast-action scenarios. They’re a type of aperture sight, but far superior to traditional bead or notch sights for several key reasons.

The core principle: A large, open rear ring – the “ghost ring” – frames a smaller front sight post. This creates a distinct, easily aligned sight picture. The large rear aperture allows for faster target acquisition, even in low-light conditions. This is because your eye naturally finds the center of the ring, significantly reducing aiming time compared to focusing on a tiny bead.

Why are they better?

Faster target acquisition: The large ring drastically speeds up sight alignment.
Improved peripheral awareness: The open design lets you maintain more situational awareness compared to hooded sights.
Increased light transmission: Better visibility in low light conditions.
Ruggedness: Ghost ring sights are built to withstand recoil and rough handling.

Different types: While the basic principle remains the same, subtle variations exist, affecting the sight picture. Some feature a thicker post, others a thinner one, impacting precision at different ranges. The size of the rear ring also varies, impacting the speed and accuracy trade-off.

Practical applications: Ghost rings shine in dynamic shooting situations like hunting moving game, home defense, and 3-gun competitions. They’re less ideal for extreme long-range precision shooting where finer adjustments are crucial, but for most shotgun applications, they offer a significant advantage.

Choosing your ghost rings: Consider factors like the type of shotgun, intended use, and personal preference. Experimenting with different sight pictures on the range is crucial to finding the perfect setup.

Does law enforcement use slugs or buckshot?

The choice between slugs and buckshot for law enforcement shotguns is a complex one, heavily influenced by the specific operational context and desired effect. While slugs offer superior range and penetration, their accuracy is highly dependent on the shooter’s skill and the weapon’s condition. This makes them less suitable for close-quarters engagements where precise shot placement is challenging.

Buckshot, particularly 00 buckshot (double-aught), has become the dominant choice for tactical, defensive, and police applications in the US. This is primarily due to its effective compromise between range, penetration, and pattern density.

Pattern Density: 00 buckshot typically contains 8-9 pellets, providing a wider spread than slugs, increasing the probability of hitting a target at closer ranges, especially when precise aiming is difficult. This is critical in high-stress situations.
Stopping Power: The multiple pellets of buckshot deliver significant kinetic energy, offering greater incapacitation potential compared to a single slug. This is a key factor in resolving immediate threats.
Reduced Overpenetration: While still capable of penetrating multiple barriers, buckshot’s reduced penetration compared to slugs minimizes the risk of collateral damage in populated areas.

However, the effective range of buckshot is significantly shorter than slugs. Beyond a certain distance, the pellet spread becomes too wide to reliably hit a target. This necessitates careful consideration of engagement distances and tactical planning.

Situational Awareness: Law enforcement agencies often train officers to assess engagement distances and select appropriate ammunition accordingly. Close-quarters scenarios favor buckshot, while longer-range engagements might call for slugs, or even rifles.
Ammunition Selection: Many agencies utilize a combination of both slug and buckshot, carrying both types of ammunition to adapt to varying situations.
Training and Proficiency: Effective use of shotguns, regardless of ammunition type, requires extensive training and practice to ensure accuracy and responsible use of force.

In summary: While slugs offer superior range, buckshot’s pattern density and stopping power make it the preferred choice for many law enforcement agencies in close-to-medium range engagements, requiring a nuanced approach to ammunition selection based on situational awareness and training.